How did Korea lose its independence to Japan? Explore Korea’s loss of independence from 1876 to 1910, including foreign intervention, Korean reform movements, armed resistance, Ahn Jung-geun’s Harbin mission, and the remarkable sacrifice of Lee Hoe-yeong’s family.
Korean Independence Movement Series — Part 1 of 3
How did Korea lose its independence to Japan?
In the K-Drama Mr. Sunshine, Korean resistance fighters struggle to defend their country against growing Japanese aggression. The 2024 film Harbin, starring Hyun Bin, tells the story of Ahn Jung-geun, the independence activist who shot Japanese statesman Ito Hirobumi. Both are set during the final years before Korea lost its sovereignty.
But Korea’s independence did not disappear because of a single war or treaty.
In the late nineteenth century, Joseon, as Korea was then known, faced pressure to open its ports and modernize. Japan, Qing China, and Russia competed for influence over the Korean Peninsula, while Koreans disagreed over how their country should respond.
Some pursued political reform or diplomacy. Others organized economic campaigns or took up arms. Understanding these different responses helps explain not only how Japan took control of Korea, but also how Koreans tried to prevent it.
Why Did Japan and Other Powers Compete for Control of Korea?
In 1876, Japan used military pressure to force Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa. The agreement opened Korean ports to Japanese trade and granted Japanese nationals extraterritorial rights, meaning they were exempt from important aspects of Korean legal jurisdiction.
The treaty marked the beginning of a new period of unequal foreign relations.
Korea’s location made it strategically important to Qing China, Japan, and Russia. The Joseon government attempted to maintain a diplomatic balance, but foreign military intervention became increasingly difficult to resist.
In 1894, a major peasant uprising challenged corruption and social inequality. Known as the Donghak Peasant Movement, it was led in part by Jeon Bong-jun and demanded changes to the existing political and social system.
When the Joseon government requested military assistance from Qing China, Japan also dispatched troops. Tensions escalated into the First Sino-Japanese War that same year. Peasant forces subsequently fought against Japanese military intervention as well.
Japan’s victory over Qing China expanded its influence in Korea. Its victory in the Russo-Japanese War, which began in 1904, strengthened its position even further.
Korea’s loss of independence cannot be explained simply as a failure to modernize.Domestic political difficulties mattered, but Japan’s expanding military power and the rivalry among imperial powers were central to the loss of Korean sovereignty.
How Did Koreans Try to Protect Their Independence Through Reform?
Foreign pressure did not mean Koreans simply accepted outside control. Throughout the late nineteenth century, different groups proposed reforms to strengthen the country.
In 1884, a group of radical reformers attempted a political transformation through the Gapsin Coup. They hoped to introduce modern institutions, but Qing military intervention ended their effort after just three days.
The Gabo Reforms of 1894 introduced major changes, including the abolition of the traditional legal status system. However, these reforms unfolded amid Japanese military intervention, raising questions about Korea’s ability to determine its own political future.
In 1897, King Gojong proclaimed the Korean Empire and became emperor. Through the Gwangmu Reforms, the government sought to strengthen its military, reorganize administration, and encourage industrial development.
The goal was to build a stronger, more independent state capable of resisting foreign interference.
Reform was not limited to the imperial government.
Established in 1896, the Independence Club promoted national sovereignty and political reform. It organized public gatherings, including the Manmin Gonghoe, or People’s Assembly, to encourage broader political participation.
These movements did not all envision the same future. Some emphasized a stronger monarchy, while others advocated greater public involvement in politics.
Their differences matter. Korea’s struggle to preserve independence was not a single unified campaign. It involved competing ideas about what an independent, modern Korean state should become.
How Did Koreans Resist Before Korea’s Loss of Independence in 1910?
Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War was followed by another decisive blow to Korean sovereignty.
In 1905, Japan imposed the Eulsa Treaty on the Korean Empire, stripping it of control over foreign affairs. Japan established the Resident-General’s Office the following year, with Ito Hirobumi becoming its first head.
Emperor Gojong attempted to bring international attention to Japan’s coercive actions. In 1907, he sent envoys to the Second Hague Peace Conference in the Netherlands.
The Korean representatives were unable to secure formal participation in the conference. Japan then used the mission as a pretext to force Gojong from the throne.
Ordinary Koreans also found ways to participate in resistance.
In 1907, the National Debt Repayment Movement began in Daegu. Supporters proposed collecting public donations to repay loans obtained from Japan and reduce Korea’s financial dependence. One memorable suggestion was to give up smoking and donate the money saved.
Armed resistance continued as well. The uibyeong, often translated as the Righteous Armies, consisted of volunteer fighters opposing Japanese aggression.
When Japan forced the Korean military to disband in 1907, some former soldiers joined these resistance groups. In 1908, Righteous Army forces attempted to advance on Seoul, although their campaign failed.
Among those involved in armed resistance was Ahn Jung-geun.
Ahn participated in anti-Japanese military activities in Russia’s Maritime Province. On October 26, 1909, he shot and killed Ito Hirobumi at Harbin Railway Station in China. Ito was a former Japanese Resident-General who had played a central role in extending Japanese control over Korea.
After his arrest, Ahn argued that his actions were part of Korea’s struggle against Japanese aggression, rather than an act motivated by personal revenge.
While imprisoned, he began writing On Peace in East Asia (Dongyang Pyeonghwaron), outlining his vision of Korean independence and cooperation among East Asian nations. He was unable to finish the work before his execution on March 26, 1910.
The 2024 Korean film Harbin, starring Hyun Bin, dramatizes Ahn’s preparations and the people involved in his mission. Although the film includes fictionalized conflicts and details, the historical assassination and Korea’s struggle against annexation were real.
Japan continued suppressing resistance and pursuing annexation. On August 29, 1910, its annexation of Korea formally took effect.
Resistance After Annexation: Lee Hoe-yeong’s Extraordinary Choice
Losing national sovereignty did not bring Korean resistance to an end.
One remarkable example was Lee Hoe-yeong, also known by his pen name Woodang, and his five brothers.
The Lee family belonged to one of Korea’s prominent aristocratic households. They possessed substantial wealth and could have remained financially comfortable. Instead, following Japan’s annexation of Korea, the brothers sold their property and relocated with family members to Manchuria, in northeastern China.
Their fortune has sometimes been described in popular accounts as worth approximately 3 trillion Korean won in today’s money. However, historical estimates vary considerably depending on the method of calculation. What is clear is that the family committed an extraordinary amount of wealth to the independence movement.
Their decision was not simply to abandon a comfortable life. They intended to establish a base where Koreans could organize and prepare for a future struggle for independence.
The family helped establish Gyeonghaksa, an organization supporting Korean settlers, and funded the founding of Sinheung Gangseupso, an educational institution established in 1911. It later developed into Sinheung Military Academy, which trained members of the Korean independence movement.
The sacrifices were severe. After investing their resources in resistance activities, family members endured poverty and hardship.
Lee continued his anti-Japanese activities for decades. In 1932, he was arrested by Japanese police and died after being subjected to torture in Japanese custody in Lüshun, China.
Ahn Jung-geun and Lee Hoe-yeong chose very different forms of resistance. Ahn risked his life in an armed operation against a leading figure in Japanese imperial expansion. Lee and his brothers gave up their wealth and security to build the foundations of a sustained independence movement.
Their stories show that the struggle for Korean independence demanded more than political convictions. For many participants, it involved the loss of their livelihoods, homes, families, and lives.
Closing
Between 1876 and 1910, Koreans tried to preserve their country’s independence through diplomacy, political reform, education, economic campaigns, and armed resistance.
Films and dramas such as Mr. Sunshine and Harbin bring some of these struggles to life. But the history behind them is larger than the stories of individual heroes.
Korea’s loss of sovereignty was shaped by imperial competition and Japanese military expansion, even as Koreans continued searching for different ways to defend their country.
Annexation in 1910 did not end the resistance. Students, women, workers, and ordinary citizens would go on to challenge colonial rule in ways that extended far beyond the battlefield.
Their experiences are the focus of Part 2 of the Korean Independence Movement series.